We detected 128 species across 67 sites within Forest Garden agroforestry plots around Homa Bay, Kenya. The most commonly detected species were the village weaver, common bulbul and white-browed robin-chat. One of the detected species, the grey crowned crane, is classified as Endangered (IUCN RedList). Several additional species, like the woodland kingfisher, are also prioritized for conservation in inter-continental action plans. Our comprehensive analyses consistently show that sites that have been in FGP the longest have a positive influence on bird diversity. Specifically, we found higher acoustic space use in FGP sites of 2 - 3 years compared to year 0 sites; this difference was attributed primarily to higher bird call activity. Moreover, we found a significantly greater likelihood of bird species occurrence in FGP sites of 1 - 3 compared to year 0 sites. Sites in FGP for 1 to 3 years had a higher number of species compared to year 0 sites. Our models also identified canopy height and proximity to Lake Victoria as significant influences on bird occurrence. This study has unveiled important insights into bird species’ presence and distribution in agroforestry sites of western Kenya. Our results underscore the positive impact of Forest Gardens on avian biodiversity, providing compelling evidence for its effectiveness in enhancing habitat quality and species richness. Our results offer valuable guidance for conservation efforts and restoration planning, contributing to the preservation of the region's unique biodiversity.

Our results provide important insights into species presence and distribution within FGP sites across the Homa Bay region of western Kenya. Additionally, the AI model developed in this project can be re-used to efficiently detect species in new datasets. This will facilitate long-term monitoring to assess patterns and trends as the FGP sites continue to develop over time.